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A review of names and types in Diplazium (Athyriaceae) and Polypodiaceae relevant to the Flora of Singapore has been undertaken. A new name and 11 lectotype designations (including one second step lectotypification), are given. 

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Lectotypes are designated for 28 names of Apocynaceae, seven of which are second-step lectotypifications. Two names are neotypified, Leptostemma hirsutum Blume is designated as the type of the genus Leptostemma Blume, and a new combination in Secamone R.Br. is coined for Genianthus maingayi Hook.f.

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Colura brevistyla Herzog is reported here as a new genus and species record for Singapore. A complete description and illustrations of C. brevistyla are provided based on the newly identified specimen from Singapore.

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A correction is made for the use of the name Atuna excelsa (Jack) Kosterm. which has been erroneously placed as a subspecies of A. racemosa Raf. despite being described sixteen years earlier. Atuna excelsa is restored as the correct name for this species and A. racemosa is reduced to subspecific rank. Since the holotype of Atuna racemosa is an old illustration, an epitype is proposed for this name.

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A revision of all species of the genus Cinnamomum Schaeff. (Lauraceae) occurring in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore is presented with a summary of taxonomic history, notable features ofmorphology, a key to species, and a description, distribution map, Provisional IUCN Conservation Assessment for each species, together with notes on ecology and ethnobotany. In this revision, twenty-two distinct species are recognised, including one former variety that is elevated to species level as Cinnamomum selangorense (Ridl.) de Kok. Eleven names are lectotypified (Camphora inuncta Nees; Cinnamomum cinereum Gamble, C. graciliflorum Gamble, C. malaccense Meisn., C. ridleyi Gamble, C. rhynchophyllum Miq., C. sintoc Blume, C. subcuneatum Miq., C. velutinum Ridl., and C. vimineum Wall. ex Nees; Laurus malabathrum Wall. ex Nees), and five names are placed into synonymy for the first time. A small number of species are considered to have a Provisional IUCN Conservation Assessment of Least Concern, while most are either Endangered or Critically Endangered, with one species considered to be Data Deficient (Cinnamomum trintaense Kosterm.).

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A short note on the orchids of Buru Island, Maluku Archipelago, is presented. Bulbophyllum cruciatum J.J.Sm. and Dendrobium bicaudatum Reinw. ex Lindl. are new records for Buru. Trichotosia buruensis (J.J.Sm.) S.Thomas et al. has been rediscovered after a lapse of 84 years. The distribution of a species with a previously uncertain distribution in Maluku, Dilochia wallichii Lindl., is now confirmed for Buru. We also discovered a population of the endemic Vanda saxatilis J.J.Sm. All species are briefly discussed and illustrated by photographs.

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A new species, Petrocosmea weiyigangii F.Wen (Gesneriaceae), is described from southern China. It differs from all other species of Petrocosmea in its deeply lobed leaf blades. It is only known from a limestone cave in northwestern Guangxi, China. Following the IUCN Red List categories and criteria, Petrocosmea weiyigangii is assessed as Critically Endangered.

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Macrolenes (Melastomataceae: Dissochaeteae), a genus of woody climbers in Malesia, is taxonomically revised. Seventeen species are recognised, of which three are new to science. The genus is characterised by its scrambling habit, a pair of hair cushion domatia on the base of the leaves, axillary inflorescences, and fimbriate connective appendages on the alternipetalous stamens. An identification key, nomenclature, descriptions, typification, geographic distributions and taxonomic notes are provided. The affinities with Dissochaeta, also woody climbers, are discussed.

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The reproductive behaviour and fruit production of three endangered species of Johannesteijsmannia H.E.Moore were studied for two years. Flowering occurred annually in Johannesteijsmannia magnifica J.Dransf. and sub-annually in J. lanceolata J.Dransf. and J. perakensis J.Dransf. The flowering of all species peaked from March to May and occurred during the wet seasons. High seed loss of 84–98% was recorded among the species. On average, Johannesteijsmannia perakensis produced the highest number of mature fruits per year (229) and J. lanceolata the lowest (69). This preliminary study provides vital information on species fecundity and demonstrates that each species, although within the same genus, has different flowering and fruiting behaviour.

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Book review

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Book review

     Dr Lena Chan Dr Geoffrey Davison
(Supplement Editor) (Supplement Editor)

Dr David J. Middleton              Lily Chen
    (Editor-in-Chief)                   (Managing Editor)

      Felicia Tay                Ada Davis                 Christina Soh 
(Graphics Editor)          (Copy Editor)          (Business Manager)

Content Page

Preface

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We introduce the Comprehensive Biodiversity Survey of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore, for which planning began in 2014, field work was conducted largely in 2015–2016, and results analysed and written up in 2017–2018. The comprehensive survey is placed in the context of previous surveys in 1991–1992 and in 1992–1997. Bukit Timah is historically important and continues to be nationally and internationally significant for nature conservation.

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Biological interest in Bukit Timah, Singapore, long pre-dated its declaration as a forest reserve (1887) and nature reserve (1951). The administrative and land use changes affecting this fragment of coastal hill dipterocarp forest are described. Boundary changes have determined the areas now supporting primary, old secondary or maturing secondary forest, and account for many of the features described in an accompanying set of papers on the current biodiversity of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR). Research interest in the nature reserve continues to be high, with roughly 25 new research projects initiated each year.

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The plant diversity of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR) is relatively well studied due to concerted effort over several decades, particularly as part of the worldwide system of ecological plots set up by the Center for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS), now called the Forest Global Earth Observatory. Publications arising from previous works have set baseline data for the species diversity, suggested that the forest resilience was greater than would be expected in such a small forest fragment, but that there was low recruitment of primary forest tree species into the secondary forest. In order to assess the overall vascular plant diversity, and to compare the diversity of the various forest types within BTNR to each other, 52 plots were set up, each 20 × 5 m, along nine different transects that covered the full range of topography and forest types, primary, old secondary and maturing secondary forests, within the reserve. The vascular plant diversity within each plot was recorded. In total, 1250 species in 148 families were recorded, including an additional 167 species newly listed for BTNR. The primary forest had the highest number of species not found in the other forest types. It nevertheless had a very large overlap with species in the old secondary forest but not with the maturing secondary forest.

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The Bukit Timah Nature Reserve is an extremely important type locality for many species of macrofungi, especially for those collected by Edred John Henry Corner between 1929 and 1945 and later described by him. There has been little work done on the fungi of Singapore in recent years and much remains to be done. Current efforts to curate the fungal collection at Singapore Botanic Gardens are discussed, a new collecting programme is highlighted, and the very long way to go before we have a decent understanding of macrofungal diversity of Bukit Timah and the rest of Singapore is emphasised.

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A two-year survey at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore, found a high diversity of amphibian, reptile and mammal species. A total of 81 indigenous species was recorded – 18 amphibians, 40 reptiles and 23 mammals. The updated inventory comprises 115 species – 21 amphibians, 60 reptiles and 34 mammals ever historically recorded within the reserve.

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A survey of birds in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR), Singapore, in 2015– 2016 yielded a cumulative total of 1663 individual sightings, amounting to 68 species. The total ever recorded for BTNR is now 146 bird species. The 68 species recorded in the present survey included four globally threatened, six globally near-threatened species, 14 nationally threatened and six nationally near-threatened species. Few of the species are entirely and strictly forest dependent, though many make use of both primary and disturbed forest environments.

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This paper discusses the preliminary results of the first comprehensive survey of the spiders of the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR) in Singapore. Two plots were established in each of the three zones of vegetation, viz., primary forest, old secondary forest, and maturing secondary forest. They were repeatedly sampled over an 18-month period. Sorting of the collection so far suggests that the three vegetation zones harbour rather different spider assemblages. Only ~9% of the total spider fauna recovered was shared by all three zones. The results have also yielded a preliminary picture of dominance, abundance and rarity. Although first intended to obtain a baseline for future quantitative analyses, the survey became a testing ground to modify and refine methodology so as to conduct future quantitative surveys with greater scientific rigour. Taxonomic work on the samples so far shows that the spiders in the BTNR span over 43 families, of which six families are listed for the first time in Singapore. The tally is summarised in an interim checklist of BTNR spiders. The checklist, with a total of 317 entries, shows that there are 158 described species of spiders in BTNR, of which 25 species are new records for Singapore. Another 159 morphospecies are provisionally recognised as distinct species, some of which may be new to science. Our observations during the survey have allowed us to provide a narrative of BTNR spider diversity against a backdrop of their microhabitat specialisation.

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As a unique coastal hill dipterocarp forest remnant in Singapore, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve is a key refuge for flowering plants, but little information has been available about its bee pollinators and their floral associations. Historical and recent surveys of bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila) at Bukit Timah and vicinity were compiled, yielding a total known fauna of four families, 23 genera, and 75 species (including unnamed morphospecies). Of these, 55 bee species, several known only from historical collections, have been recorded from the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR) itself, which is dominated by mature, shady forest with few apparent flowers along the trails. More bee species (61) have been recorded from nearby Dairy Farm Nature Park (DF), which has more open, sunnier secondary forest with more conspicuous floral resources. Sampling methods included net collecting and honey baiting along transects, malaise trapping within the forest, and observations at flowers. Accounts are provided for species of particular taxonomic or conservation interest, and two new provisional synonymies are indicated. Floral associations are summarised for 32 floral hosts from BTNR (only 10 plant species) and from DF (28 plant species, including 5 shared with BTNR). For all species known from BTNR and vicinity, earliest and most recent dates of capture for both this area and for Singapore as a whole are provided. Four eusocial stingless bee species formerly collected in Singapore but not recently recorded are considered to be nationally extinct. An additional few poorly known solitary bee species may also be nationally extinct. By contrast, solitary bee species new to Singapore continue to be discovered at BTNR, notably Megachile resin and leafcutter bees attracted to reintroduced Tiger Orchids in 2014 during a mass bloom. Despite high species richness of native angiosperms persisting at BTNR, especially in its core, few bee species and individuals were found in recent bee surveys, likely reflecting limited availability of floral resources in the shady forest understorey. However, additional bee species are likely to be found in BTNR if further sampling is done during infrequent mass bloom events and traps are deployed at canopy level.

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Freshwater decapod crustaceans serve important ecological functions in tropical stream ecosystems. Stream surveys for decapod crustacean fauna were conducted between February 2015 and April 2016 at nine sites in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR). A total of eight species (four freshwater crab, three freshwater shrimp and one crayfish species) out of the nine species known from BTNR were recorded. In general, the species were recorded from sites matching environmental conditions previously known or reported for each species, with some crab species showing minor overlap in their spatial distributions. This highlights the importance of broad-based conservation efforts focusing on the entire stream network in BTNR rather than on specific/selected streams as the various species each appear to have largely unique habitat requirements. The updated information on freshwater decapod crustaceans in BTNR can be used to inform the formulation of conservation and management measures including the establishment of monitoring programs for the protection of our native and threatened aquatic fauna in BTNR.

Abstract:
Twenty-two papers arising from the Comprehensive Biodiversity Survey of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR), Singapore (2014–2018) have provided a thorough update and expansion of information on many groups of flora and fauna. In spite of the small size and isolation of BTNR there is still remarkable diversity, and new records and new species continue to accumulate. A large body of information on the terrestrial and aquatic physical environment is now available, providing a context for many of the biological results. Various management recommendations emerge.

Content Page

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Owing to a mix-up by Wallich, there has been confusion over the application of three names in Psychotria based on collections made by William Jack, purportedly in Penang in 1819. As pointed out by Merrill, Psychotria malayana Jack is the same species as P. stipulacea Wall. and not P. aurantiaca Wall. The plants from Java that were referred by Blume to Psychotria aurantiaca were renamed P. valetonii by Hochreutiner. However, there is an earlier name available, Psychotria megacoma Miq. While specimens from Singapore that were referred to as Psychotria sp. 9 by Wong show some differences from much of the material from Java, the wide variation in material from Borneo leads to the decision to treat P. megacoma Miq. as the correct name for plants from Singapore, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. A secondstep lectotypification is made for Psychotria malayana Jack and lectotypes are designated for P. stipulacea Wall., P. megacoma Miq., Grumilea aurantiaca var. lutescens Miq. and G. aurantiaca var. subplumbea Miq.

Abstract:
Neonauclea kranjiensis K.M.Wong & W.W.Seah, a newly diagnosed species from Singapore, is described. It most resembles Neonauclea excelsa (Blume) Merr. from which it differs in its smaller, narrowly elliptic leaves as well as smaller mature flowering heads. The taxa known as Neonauclea excelsa and N. calycina (DC.) Merr. in Java, Peninsular Malaysia and parts of Borneo are just one species to which the name Neonauclea excelsa must be applied. Neonauclea calycina continues to be recognised as a species in the Philippines pending further study.

Abstract:
Work on the Gentianales for the Flora of Singapore has clarified the identities of two names based on types collected in Singapore that have long been considered of uncertain application. Dischidia wallichii Wight is shown to be a synonym of Micrechites serpyllifolius (Blume) Kosterm. (Apocynaceae) and Saprosma ridleyi King & Gamble is a synonym of Psychotria maingayi Hook.f. (Rubiaceae). A lectotype is designated for Dischidia wallichii.

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The name Mangifera paludosa Kosterm. ex S.K.Ganesan is validated and described. Notes on distribution, ecology and conservation status are given.

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A second-step lectotype and an epitype are designated here for Bauhinia touranensis Gagnep., now Cheniella touranensis (Gagnep.) R.Clark & Mackinder.

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A list of the Annonaceae taxa indigenous to the Asia-Pacific Region (including Australia) is presented, including full synonymy and typification with an outline of the geographic distribution. Some 1100 species in 40 genera are listed. A number of nomenclatural changes are made. The species of Artabotrys from Java previously referred to as Artabotrys blumei Hook.f. & Thomson is described here as Artabotrys javanicus I.M.Turner, because A. blumei is shown to be the correct name for the Chinese species generally known as A. hongkongensis Hance. The type of Uvaria javana Dunal is a specimen of U. dulcis Dunal. The new combination Uvaria blumei (Boerl.) I.M.Turner based on U. javana var. blumei Boerl. is therefore proposed as the correct name for the species known for many years as U. javana. Other new combinations proposed are Fissistigma parvifolium (Craib) I.M.Turner, Friesodielsia borneensis var. sumatrana (Miq.) I.M.Turner, Sphaerocoryne touranensis (Bân) I.M.Turner and Uvaria kontumensis (Bân) I.M.Turner. The replacement name Sphaerocoryne astiae I.M.Turner is provided for Popowia gracilis Jovet-Ast. Melodorum fruticosum Lour. is reduced to a synonym of Uvaria siamensis (Scheff.) L.L.Zhou et al. Many new lectotypes and neotypes are designated.

Editorial

Abstract:
Artabotrys scortechinii King was recently discovered as a new record for the native flora of Singapore. This poorly known species has been confused with Artabotrys maingayi Hook.f. & Thomson and its fruits and seeds have not been previously described. This paper presents an augmented description, including its fruit morphology and diagnostic floral characters, which distinguish it from its congeners. A key to the native Artabotrys R.Br. species in Singapore is provided.

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Records for the presence of three hitherto overlooked species of Uncaria Schreb., U. borneensis Havil., U. canescens Korth. and U. elliptica R.Br. ex G.Don, in Singapore are presented. Recent collections of three other species, Uncaria acida (W.Hunter) Roxb., U. callophylla Blume ex Korth. and U. roxburghiana Korth., provide evidence of the continued existence of these species in Singapore that were thought to be extinct locally.

Abstract:
Micrechites lancifolia (Hook.f.) D.J.Middleton & Livsh. is newly recorded for Singapore. A description and provisional conservation assessment are provided.

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A new distributional record to Singapore of Shorea johorensis Foxw. (Dipterocarpaceae) is described and illustrated. This species is known from remnant lowland dipterocarp forest in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Singapore. Notes on distribution, ecology and conservation status are given. This species is assessed as critically endangered for Singapore.

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A new distributional record to Singapore of Melochia umbellata (Houtt.) Stapf is described and illustrated. This name is lectotypified. Notes on distribution, ecology and
conservation status are given. This species is assessed as critically endangered for Singapore. A key is given for the two Melochia L. species occurring in Singapore.

Abstract:
Several new records of plant species previously unknown in Singapore are reported, along with records of species presumed to be nationally extinct which have been rediscovered. These reports are based on specimens collected during our recent surveys of the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and previously unreported older specimens, all deposited in SING. Three species are reported as new records for Singapore: Scindapsus lucens Bogner & P.C.Boyce, Passiflora quadriglandulosa Rodschied and Tectaria nayarii Mazumdar. Scindapsus lucens is likely to be native and previously overlooked, whereas Passiflora quadriglandulosa and Tectaria nayarii are exotic species which have escaped from cultivation and become naturalised. Another 10 species are rediscoveries of taxa previously considered to be nationally extinct: Aglaia palembanica Miq., Bolbitis sinuata (C.Presl) Hennipman, Calamus ornatus Blume, Claoxylon longifolium (Blume) Endl. ex Hassk., Dapania racemosa Korth., Dioscorea kingii R.Knuth, Ficus rosulata C.C.Berg, Lasianthus reticulatus Blume, Ryparosa hullettii King and Senegalia kekapur (I.C.Nielsen) Maslin, Seigler & Ebinger.

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The city-state of Singapore continues to provide many new records and rediscoveries of plant species in its nature reserves, offshore islands and secondary forests. Eleven new records for Singapore and eight rediscoveries of species previously presumed nationally extinct are reported here along with national conservation assessments. The new records are Albertisia crassa Forman, Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr., Chaetocarpus castanocarpus (Roxb.) Thwaites, Dendrokingstonia nervosa (Hook.f. & Thomson) Rauschert, Dipterocarpus chartaceus Symington, Haplopteris sessilifrons (Miyam. & H.Ohba) S.Linds., Hewittia malabarica (L.) Suresh, Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir., Spermacoce parviceps (Ridl.) I.M.Turner, Sphaeropteris trichodesma (Scort.) R.M.Tryon and Uvaria micrantha (A.DC.) Hook.f. & Thomson. The rediscoveries are Callerya dasyphylla (Miq.) Schot, Cocculus orbiculatus (L.) DC., Lecananthus erubescens Jack, Loeseneriella macrantha (Korth.) A.C.Sm., Mapania squamata (Kurz) C.B.Clarke, Plagiostachys lateralis (Ridl.) Ridl., Scolopia macrophylla (Wight & Arn.) Clos and Spatholobus maingayi Prain ex King.

Abstract:
Nine species of plants that are casual or have become naturalised are newly recorded for Singapore. Six of these are weeds assumed to have only recently arrived in Singapore: Cuscuta campestris Yunck., Clidemia capitellata (Bonpl.) D.Don, Decalobanthus peltatus (L.) A.R.Simões & Staples, Erigeron bellioides DC., Justicia comata (L.) Lam., Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small. The remaining three have been in Singapore for some time but have been previously overlooked: Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Juss. ex Aubl.) C.F.Baker, Praxelis clematidea R.M.King & H.Rob and Spigelia anthelmia L.

Abstract:
The mycoheterotropic species, Exacum tenue (Blume) Klack. (Gentianaceae), was recently discovered on a limestone hill in Kelantan, Malaysia. A detailed description of the species together with a botanical drawing and colour photographs are provided.

Abstract:
Jasminum ledangense Kiew is a new species restricted to Gunung Ledang, Johor and Jasminum carissoides Kerr and J. nervosum Lour. are new records for Malaysia. Jasminum carissoides is restricted to limestone in Kedah (Langkawi) and Perlis and also occurs in Peninsular Thailand, while a narrow-leaved form of J. nervosum is found on limestone in Kedah (Langkawi). Jasminum insularum Kerr is confirmed as a distinct species. It is extremely rare and known from just three specimens, the type from Peninsular Thailand, one from Kelantan and another from Pahang in Malaysia. Descriptions are provided for these species.

Abstract:
A new fern species, Adiantum alleniae S.Linds., is described from Peninsular Malaysia and Adiantum siamense Tagawa & K.Iwats. is reported from Peninsular Malaysia for the first time.

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The filmy ferns (Hymenophyllaceae) of Kuala Belalong in Brunei Darussalam are enumerated along with morphological descriptions and short notes on ecology and distribution. Determination keys to each group are included. In total, 22 species belonging to 6 genera (Hymenophyllum Sm., Crepidomanes C.Presl, Didymoglossum Desv., Abrodictyum C.Presl, Cephalomanes C.Presl and Callistopteris Copel.) were identified in the field and in herbaria, the majority of them being epiphytic. Two of the species, namely Crepidomanes grande (Copel.) Ebihara & K.Iwats. and Didymoglossum motleyi (Bosch) Ebihara & K.Iwats., have not previously been recorded from Brunei Darussalam.

Abstract:
The rediscovery of Begonia promethea Ridl. for the first time since its description in 1906 led to the discovery that the later described B. beccarii Warb. is synonymous with it and that it belongs in Begonia sect. Petermannia. It is a rare, endangered species known only from three localities, two locations from the Kuching Division, Sarawak, Malaysia and another one from West Kalimantan, Indonesia. A detailed, illustrated description and a distribution map of Begonia promethea are provided. We suggest an IUCN conservation category of EN B2ab(iii). Lectotypes for both names are designated.

Abstract:
Based on collections from the Matarombeo limestone mountain range in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia, the two new species Begonia balgooyi D.C.Thomas & Ardi and B. matarombeoensis D.C.Thomas & Ardi are described and illustrated, and an amended description and a photo plate of B. watuwilensis Girm. are provided. These species are restricted to limestone habitats and endemic to Southeast Sulawesi. Provisional conservation assessments indicate an Endangered (EN) status for all three species.

Abstract:
A new fern species from the Philippines, Haplopteris mindanaoensis S.Linds. & C.W.Chen, is described and illustrated based on the results of detailed morphological comparison and molecular phylogenetic analysis. Morphologically, Haplopteris mindanaoensisis characterised by having obovoid (rather than funnel-shaped) soral paraphyses and deep soral grooves with asymmetrical flaps. Analysis of a combined four gene (chlL, matK, ndhF, and trnL-F) plastid data set shows that: (1) the two included samples of Haplopteris mindanaoensis have the same distinct haplotype; (2) Haplopteris mindanaoensis diverges early within the clade where most species with marginal soral grooves are placed; and (3) Haplopteris heterophylla C.W.Chen, Y.H.Chang & Yea C.Liu, the only other Haplopteris C.Presl species known to have obovoid paraphyses, is not closely related to H. mindanaoensis. The status of Haplopteris amboinensis (Fée) X.C.Zhang in China and Indochina is also clarified and a new combination, H. ensata (Christ) C.W.Chen & S.Linds. is made.

Abstract:
A total of 35 species of Marasmiellus Murrill belonging to five sections (Dealbati, Rameales, Marasmiellus, Stenophylloides, and Candidi) are described from Java and Bali. Sixteen taxa are described as new species: Marasmiellus bisporus Retn., M. cibodasensis Retn., M. cikanikiensis Retn., M. clavatus Retn., M. desjardinii Retn., M. diverticulatus Retn., M. haurbentesis Retn., M. javanicus Retn., M. longisiccus Retn., M. pipericola Retn., M. pruinosus Retn., M. reniformis Retn., M. rifaii Retn., M. subglobosus Retn., M. tamblinganensis Retn. and M. zingibericola Retn. Two new combinations are made: M. nugatorius (Corner) Retn. and M. pangerangensis (Henn.) Retn. Comprehensive descriptions, illustrations, and comparisons with similar taxa are presented. Eight names are lectotypified.

Book Review:
Tropical Forest Scientist. Francis S.P. Ng and FRIM 1964–1991.

Dr Geoffrey Davison Dr Cai Yixong
(Supplement Editor) (Supplement Editor)

Dr David J. Middleton            Dr Jana Leong-Škorničková
(Editor-in-Chief)                   (Managing Editor)

Felicia Tay               Dr Daniel C.Thomas        Christina Soh 
(Graphics Editor)     (Copy Editor)               (Business Manager)

Abstract:
The current paper acts as an introduction to nine following papers concerning the hydrology and biodiversity of Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest. Freshwater swamp forest is a threatened and overlooked ecosystem in the Southeast Asian region and in Singapore. Characterised by predominantly mineral soils supporting forest that contains a subset of flora  and fauna of lowland forest, but with the addition of important habitat specialists, freshwater swamp forest is fed by an array of hydrological processes. As conservation management depends on good hydrological and biological understanding, a research programme was designed to tease out the roles of the various hydrological components. The background, management concerns, and aims of the project are detailed.

Abstract:
The Nee Soon stream drainage in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve is virtually the last remaining fragment of primary freshwater swamp forest in Singapore. The forest type has been poorly studied in the Southeast Asia. The hydrology, water quality, as well as aquatic flora and fauna all have great theoretical and practical significance. The ecology and management of the Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest are reviewed, with remarks on their national, regional and global contexts. This review sets the scene for a three-year integrated conservation and management study completed in 2016.

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This paper presents initial findings from research on the hydro-geomorphic status of Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest catchment in Singapore. The hydrological system of Nee Soon contains a swamp that is best described as an organic-rich wetland, with organic matter content as high as 40% near the surface (too low to be classified as peat). Total longterm denudation rate in the catchment is an estimated 23.4 ± 2.08 Mg km-2 yr-1, with physical erosion (5.6 ± 0.5 Mg km-2 yr-1) and chemical weathering (17.8 ± 1.58 Mg km-2 yr-1) accounting for 24% and 76% of the totals, respectively. Age dating of a 1.95-m sediment core from the lower swamp indicates several distinct periods of variable sediment deposition (0.04 to 0.009 cm y-1) since 15,000 BCE, across a variety of climate regimes. A missing layer, representing more than a 7000 year period, verifies substantial channel erosion in the swamp occurring since 1950. Accelerated erosion associated with forest conversion to agriculture in the upper catchment could not be verified through examination of sediment cores. High concentrations of several heavy metals (e.g. As, Cr, Mn, Ni, Sr, V) in the lower catchment, compared with the upper catchment, appear to be natural (e.g. related to differences in the underlying bedrock), rather than contamination. The very high concentrations of lead, copper, and zinc associated with firing activities in the military range in the lower catchment are spatially isolated (e.g. shooting berms), and currently not posing a threat to the swamp environment. Other hydrogeomorphic degradation processes/activities now include disruption to hillslope soils and streams by trampling and mountain biking, back-flow of reservoir release water into the lower swamp area, and atmospheric deposition of contaminants.

Abstract:
The unique plant communities of the freshwater swamp forests of southern Johor (Malaysia) and Singapore attracted the attention of E.J.H. Corner, but there have been no comprehensive follow-up studies to his seminal work. Meanwhile, freshwater swamp forests in the region have been mostly lost to logging and in-filling for plantations or urban development. The Nee Soon catchment contains the last substantial tract of this forest type in Singapore. We collated the rediscoveries of vascular plant species presumed Nationally Extinct in the 2nd and latest edition of the Singapore Red Data Book, and new records for the Singapore vascular plant flora from the Nee Soon catchment, including those that we found and collected through the establishment and survey of 40 vegetation plots, each 20 × 20 m. We have identified 672 species from 117 families, of which 288 are trees from 60 families represented by at least one stem ≥ 5 cm DBH. The catchment is especially species rich and abundant in the Myristicaceae. In the last ten years, 53 rediscoveries, 11 new species records, and two new varietal records have been uncovered from (or can be found in) the Nee Soon catchment. The Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest is one of Singapore’s most valuable botanical areas, and warrants sustained conservation effort and study.

Abstract:
The Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest is a vital area for biodiversity conservation in Singapore. A survey of the aquatic macroinvertebrates in the streams of the Nee Soon drainage was carried out to capture a representative sample of the communities present. Here, we present the different groups of macroinvertebrates sampled as well as their abundance and distribution within the freshwater swamp forest. An annotated checklist of the orders of the macroinvertebrates found in the freshwater swamp forest follows, together with information on their distribution and abundance within the Nee Soon catchment.

Abstract:
Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest is the last remaining primary freshwater swamp forest left in Singapore and it contains a rich diversity of native and locally threatened fauna. As native terrestrial snails and slugs are poorly studied and understood in Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest, an extensive survey was conducted to establish their current status. A total of 19 species was recorded, of which one was recorded for Singapore for the first time. Amphidromus atricallosus temasek, a recently described subspecies endemic to Singapore, was found to be more commonly distributed than previously known from the swamp forest. Results also indicate that despite low overall abundance, Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest harbours a rich diversity of land snails and slugs. Any future long term changes in climate or topography, or short term changes in hydrology, might affect their distribution and diversity.

Abstract:
Biodiversity baselines were established for dragonflies of Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest based on quantitative sampling across the eight sub-catchments. Surveys were conducted from December 2014 to April 2016. Hydrological, physiochemical parameters and habitats were analysed to identify the main drivers structuring the dragonfly community. A total of 1706 odonate specimens were recorded, comprising 49 species of 34 genera in 11 families. The species diversity in each sub-catchment was compared using the Shannon-Wiener Index (H’). Hierarchical clustering and Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) indicated that three main groupings of sites existed, each with a distinct community of associated species. Further analysis by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) with 12 significant environmental variables showed that these groups were significantly associated with respective environmental variables. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was performed to analyse the full 23 environmental variables. The first four principal components of the PCA explained 63% of the variation in all the environmental variables. These four axes were input as independent variables into an Ordinary Least Square (OLS) model to test the significance of the link between habitat characteristics and diversity of the dragonfly community. Threats to the odonate fauna of the freshwater swamp forest are identified and conservation management measures are discussed.

Abstract:
Many invertebrate and plant species are difficult to identify even by taxonomic experts. This has created a major obstacle for understanding the ecology of tropical environments. Here we explore the use of new large-scale, cost-effective approaches to species identification using Next-Generation Sequencing (“DNA barcodes”). Due to the rapid drop in sequencing cost, such barcodes have the potential to help with many identification tasks and they will facilitate regular monitoring of habitats. We use this approach to explore the species diversity of Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest and provide taxonomic identification tools for the fauna and flora of the forest. DNA-barcode libraries were generated for the flora (>1000 barcodes; 170 chloroplast genomes) and fauna (ca. 3000 barcodes). In addition, highresolution images of 502 animal and 200 plant species were placed on an online image database (“Biodiversity of Singapore”). These images are available to help experts and non-experts alike to identify and appreciate these species. The new databases document Nee Soon’s impressive diversity, but they are also important for in-depth studies of fauna-floral species interactions. For example, the plant barcodes were used to reconstruct the diet of Raffles’ banded langur based on faecal samples. Overall, we find that the fauna in Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest is very diverse and includes many rare species, and that the species composition is very distinct from those living in surrounding habitats. Animal specimens are readily sequenced, while plant specimens (especially those represented by sapwood samples) remain a challenge. However, newer techniques (e.g. based on genome skimming) are starting to help with obtaining plant DNA-barcodes.

Abstract:
As Singapore’s only remaining patch of primary freshwater swamp forest, the good management of the Nee Soon catchment is of utmost importance if a large proportion of the flora and fauna in Singapore is to be conserved. An integrated eco-hydrological model is developed for the area, with the objectives to numerically model the hydrological variations, to assess the possible impacts of future climate change, and to facilitate future ecohydrological management. The numerical model considers the hydrological processes in a holistic manner, including rainfall-runoff, evapotranspiration, the interaction between surface water and groundwater, etc. The numerical model makes use of a combination of field survey data and alternative remote sensing data. With climate projection inputs from the Regional Climate Model (RCM), the numerical model is applied to run future scenarios to assess the climate change impact. A few management strategies are considered if favourable hydrological conditions are to be maintained for conserving the local ecosystem.

Abstract:
The current paper acts as a summary to the “Nee Soon Swamp Forest biodiversity and hydrology baseline studies project”, including results published previously and the results from papers of the current volume. Overall, flora and fauna surveys indicate healthy and diverse plant, fish and aquatic macroinvertebrate communities in Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest. There are some concerns over terrestrial and aquatic alien invasive species, loss of big emergent trees, small population sizes and viability of various native species, and the uncertain outcomes of changes in water quality and quantity. The findings inform management that Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest is especially vulnerable to changes in hydrology and there is much dependency on precipitation for its water budget. Projected climate change effects on precipitation and statistical analyses of biotic responses to hydrology clearly define drought as a major, perhaps the foremost, source of vulnerability to the ecosystem functioning of Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest. Potential management solutions are suggested to address five issues of concern for the forest: hydrological integrity, erosion and sedimentation, ecological integrity, the impact of the spillway, and impacts of construction and development.